المعرفة

هانغتشو

(تم التحويل من Hangzhou)
هذا المقال هو عن المدينة الحديثة. إذا كنت تريد المحافظة التاريخية، انظر محافظة هانگ.
يجب ألا يـُخلـَط بينها وبين Changzhou, Cangzhou, Guangzhou, or Yangzhou.
هانگ‌ژو
杭州市
Hangzhou, Hangchow, Hang Tsei, Hangchou
Prefecture-level and sub-provincial city
من أعلى، من اليمين إلى اليسار: Qianjiang New City; the Chenghuang Pavilion; Lingyin Temple; Changqiao Park on the West Lake; aerial view of the Leifeng Pagoda; Xixi National Wetland Park; the Yue Fei Temple
الختم الرسمي لـ هانگ‌ژو
Seal
Location of Hangzhou City jurisdiction in Zhejiang
Location of Hangzhou City jurisdiction in Zhejiang
هانگ‌ژو is located in ژى‌جيانگ
هانگ‌ژو
هانگ‌ژو
موقع وسط المدينة في ژى‌جيانگ
هانگ‌ژو is located in الصين
هانگ‌ژو
هانگ‌ژو
موقع وسط المدينة في الصين
الإحداثيات (Zhejiang Municipal People's Government): 30°16′01″N 120°09′11″E / 30.267°N 120.153°E / 30.267; 120.153Coordinates: 30°16′01″N 120°09′11″E / 30.267°N 120.153°E / 30.267; 120.153
البلد الصين
المقاطعةژى‌جيانگ
المقر البلديShangcheng District
الحكومة
 • النوعSub-provincial city
 • الكيانHangzhou Municipal People's Congress
 • CCP SecretaryLiu Jie
 • Congress ChairmanLi Huolin
 • العمدةYao Gaoyuan
 • CPPCC ChairmanMa Weiguang
المساحة
 • Prefecture-level and sub-provincial city16٬821٫1 كم² (6٬494٫7 ميل²)
 • الحضر
8٬259٫9 كم² (3٬189٫2 ميل²)
 • العمران
8٬107٫9 كم² (3٬130٫5 ميل²)
التعداد
 (2020 census)[1]
 • Prefecture-level and sub-provincial city11٬936٬010
 • الكثافة710/km2 (1٬800/sq mi)
 • Urban
10٬711٬238
 • الكثافة الحضرية1٬300/km2 (3٬400/sq mi)
 • العمرانية
13٬035٬329
 • الكثافة العمرانية1٬600/km2 (4٬200/sq mi)
 • National rank
5th
صفة المواطنHangzhouians
منطقة التوقيتUTC+8 (China Standard)
Postal code
310000
ISO 3166 codeCN-ZJ-01
GDP (Nominal)2021[2]
 - TotalCN¥1.811 trillion
(US$280.76 billion)
 - Per capitaCN¥151,717
(US$23,522)
 - Growth▲ 8.5%
 - Metro (2018)CN¥2.6517 trillion[3]
(US$400.7 billion)
Licence plate prefixes浙A
Regional varietyWu: Hangzhou dialect
الموقع الإلكترونيHangzhou.gov.cn
City tree
Camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora)
City flower
Sweet Osmanthus (Osmanthus fragrans)
هانغتشو
Hangzhou (Chinese characters).svg
"Hangzhou" in Chinese characters
الصينية杭州
Wuɦaŋ-tsei (Hangzhou dialect)
البريدHangchow
المعنى الحرفي"Hang Prefecture"
Qiantang
الصينية المبسطة钱塘
الصينية التقليدية錢塘
هذه المقالة تحتوي نص صيني. بدون دعم عرض مناسب، فقد ترى علامات استفهام، مربعات، أو رموز أخرى بدلاً من الحروف الصينية.

هانغتشو أو هانگ‌ژو (صينية تقليدية: 杭州; پن‌ين: Hángzhōu; تهجي خريطة البريد: Hangchow) إحدى مدن مقاطعة ژى‌جيانگ وهي العاصمة السياسية والاقتصادية للمقاطعة ومن المدن السياحية الصينية ، تشتهر بجمالها الطبيعي وتراثها الثقافي، وتصنف في النظام الصيني للتقسيم الإداري على أنها مدينة مقاطعة فرعية ،

تقع في أقصى الجنوب الصيني على نهر چيان‌تانگ. وفيها بحيرة شيهو( البحيرة الغربية), ويمر بها جدول شيشي وقناة بكين – هانگ‌ژو الكبرى و نهر تشيانتانغ و بحر الصين الشرقي. وقد بذلت هانگ‌ژو جهودا كبيرة في معالجة مياه البحيرة والنهر والقناة والبحر والجدول حتى صارت مدينة ماؤها نظيف وأنهارها صافية وهواؤها نقي ومناظرها خضراء جميلة. لذا، لم يكن غريبا على هذه المدينة أن تحظى بلقب "المدينة النموذجية في معالجة البيئة المائية بالصين" وأن يقال إن أهلها "أكثر السكان سعادة في الصين".

وقناة بكين – هانگ‌ژو الكبرى التي تصب في نهر تشيانتانغ عند جسر قونغتشن. بدأ العمل في قناة بكين – هانغتشو الكبرى في عصر الربيع والخريف (711ق. م-221ق.م)، وتواصل في أسرة سوي (581-618م) وأسرة يوان (1271-1368م)، ومن ثم بقيت على ضفتي القناة في هانغتشو آثار حضارية تاريخية لمختلف الأسر الصينية.


"الجنة في السماء، وسوتشو وهانغتشو على الأرض". هكذا قال الصينيون منذ قديم الزمان، اعتقادا منهم بأن هاتين المدينتين هما أجمل مدن العالم كله. يكمن جمال هانغشو في مائها الذي يشكل 8% من مساحتها.

بفضل مفهوم معالجة مياه البحيرة والنهر والقناة والبحر والجدول معا، وقع الاختيار على هانغتشو لتكون ضمن منطقة "أفضل ممارسة حضرية" في إكسبو شانغهاي.

وتعد هانگ‌ژو من المدن الرئيسية في دلتا شانغ يانغ، مناخ المدينة شبه استوائي وتمر عليها الفصول الأربعة, تتكون المدينة من 6 مناطق وحيين و 5 بلديات تغطي 16596 كيلومتر مربع يقطنها ما يقارب الستة ملايين نسمة.

الجزء الغربي لمدينة هانگ‌ژو أقل ارتفاعا عن سطح البحر من جزئها الشرقي، فتم توظيف هذا الوضع الطبوغرافي لجعل المياه تتدفق من الأماكن العالية إلى غربي المدينة، وتصفيتها خلال جريانها لمسافة طويلة فارتفعت جودة المياه بشكل ملموس. كما طبقت المدينة تكنولوجيا المعالجة البيولوجية لحماية ومعالجة وتحسين النظام الإيكولوجي، فارتفعت جودة المياه وتحسنت البيئة في نفس الوقت، وصارت بحيرة شيهو ونهر شيشي أكثر جذبا للأحياء المائية. إن تكنولوجيا المعالجة البيولوجية ونظام التصفية الطبيعية المنخفض التكلفة والعالي الفعالية يستحقان أن يعمما في العالم.

بعد الحماية الشاملة والمعالجة، توسعت مساحة بحيرة شيهو، وتحسنت البيئة الإيكولوجية لمنطقة البحيرة والأراضي الرطبة لنهر شيشي، وأصبحت حديقة نهر شيشي أول حديقة وطنية للأرض الرطبة في الصين. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، حددت حكومة المدينة بعض المناطق يُحظَر فيها إشعال المفرقعات وتربية الحيوانات، ونقلت المؤسسات الصناعية إلى خارج التجمعات السكنية وأنشأت محطة ضخمة لمعالجة المياه المستخدمة واتخذت إجراءات للسيطرة على انبعاثات المواد الملوثة، وتم تطهير نهر تشيانتانغ، وسحب المياه الجارية من نهر تشيانتانغ وضخها في قناة بكين–هانگ‌ژو الكبرى. وهكذا، بعد عشرات السنوات عانت فيها القناة من انسداد مجراها، صارت مياهها صافية وعلى ضفتيها ممران جميلان طولهما 21 كيلومترا..[4]

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التاريخ

هانگ‌ژو هي أحد مهود الحضارة الصينية حيث سكنها الإنسان منذ 4700 سنة وأول من سكنها قبيلة تدعى ليانجتشو و كانت المدينة عاصمة مملكة وو وأيضا مملكة يي كما كانت أيضا عاصمة أسرة سونگ الجنوبية وأول من أعلنها مقاطعة هو الإمبراطور جينج .


التاريخ المبكر

 
A ceremonial jade cong of the ثقافة ليانگ‌ژو.

The celebrated neolithic culture of Hemudu is known to have inhabited Yuyao, 100 km (62 mi) south-east of Hangzhou, as far back as seven thousand years ago.[5] It was during this time that rice was first cultivated in southeast China.[6] Excavations have established that the jade-carving Liangzhu culture (named for its type site just northwest of Hangzhou) inhabited the area immediately around the present city around five thousand years ago.[7] The first of Hangzhou's present neighborhoods to appear in written records was Yuhang, which probably preserves an old Baiyue name.[8]

 
A ceremonial jade bi من ثقافة ليانگ‌ژو

Hangzhou was made the seat of the prefecture of Hang in AD 589, entitling it to a city wall which was constructed two years later. By a longstanding convention also seen in other cities like Guangzhou and Fuzhou, the city took on the name of the area it administered and became known as Hangzhou. Hangzhou was at the southern end of China's Grand Canal which extends to Beijing. The canal evolved over centuries but reached its full length by 609.[9]

أسرة سونگ

In 1089, while another renowned poet Su Shi (Su Dongpo) was the city's governor, he used 200,000 workers to construct a 2.8 km (1.7 mi) long causeway across West Lake. The lake was once a lagoon tens of thousands of years ago. Silt then blocked the way to the sea and the lake was formed. A drill in the lake-bed in 1975 found the sediment of the sea, which confirmed its origin. Artificial preservation prevented the lake from evolving into a marshland. The Su Causeway built by Su Shi a Tang dynasty poet who was once the governor of Hangzhou, built out of mud dredged from the lake bottom. The lake is surrounded by hills on the northern and western sides. The Baochu Pagoda sits on the Baoshi Hill to the north of the lake.


 
Xiangji Temple was built in 978 AD during the Northern Song Dynasty
 
Statue of Su Shi at the end of Su Causeway at the West Lake

Arab merchants lived in Hangzhou during the Song dynasty, due to the fact that the oceangoing trade passages took precedence over land trade during this time.[10] There were also Arabic inscriptions from the 13th century and 14th century. During the later period of the Yuan dynasty, Muslims were persecuted through the banning of their traditions, and they participated in revolts against the Mongols.[11] The Fenghuangshi mosque was constructed by an Egyptian trader who moved to Hangzhou.[12] Ibn Battuta is known to have visited the city of Hangzhou in 1345; he noted its charm and described how the city sat on a beautiful lake and was surrounded by gentle green hills.[13] During his stay at Hangzhou, he was particularly impressed by the large number of well-crafted and well-painted Chinese wooden ships with colored sails and silk awnings in the canals. He attended a banquet held by Qurtai, the Yuan Mongol administrator of the city, who according to Ibn Battuta, was fond of the skills of local Chinese conjurers.[14]


 
هانگ‌ژو depicted in a French illumination from 1412
 
Hupao ("Dreaming of the Tiger") Spring في هانگ‌ژو
 
Cuiguang Pavilion by the West Lake
 
"Lotus in the Breeze at the Winding Courtyard", one of the Ten Scenes of the West Lake

Hangzhou was chosen as the new capital of the Southern Song dynasty in 1132,[15] when most of northern China had been conquered by the Jurchens in the Jin–Song wars.[16] The Song court had retreated south to the city in 1129 from its original capital in Kaifeng, after it was captured by the Jurchens in the Jingkang Incident of 1127.[17][18] From Kaifeng they moved to Nanjing, modern Shangqiu, then to Yangzhou in 1128.[17] The government of the Song intended it to be a temporary capital. However, over the decades Hangzhou grew into a major commercial and cultural center of the Song dynasty. It rose from a middling city of no special importance to one of the world's largest and most prosperous.[19] Once the prospect of retaking northern China had diminished, government buildings in Hangzhou were extended and renovated to better befit its status as an imperial capital and not just a temporary one. The imperial palace in Hangzhou, modest in size, was expanded in 1133 with new roofed alleyways, and in 1148 with an extension of the palace walls.[20]

From the early 12th century until the Mongol invasion of 1276، بقيت هانگ‌ژو العاصمة وكانت تُعرف بإسم لين آن. It served as the seat of the imperial government, a center of trade and entertainment, and the nexus of the main branches of the civil service. During that time the city was a gravitational center of Chinese civilization: what used to be considered "central China" in the north was taken by the Jin, an ethnic minority dynasty ruled by Jurchens.

Numerous philosophers, politicians, and men of literature, including some of the most celebrated poets in Chinese history such as Su Shi, Lu You, and Xin Qiji came here to live and die. Hangzhou is also the birthplace and final resting place of the scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095 AD), his tomb being located in the Yuhang district.[21]

During the Southern Song dynasty, commercial expansion, an influx of refugees from the conquered north, and the growth of the official and military establishments, led to a corresponding population increase and the city developed well outside its 9th-century ramparts. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Hangzhou had a population of over 2 million at that time, while historian Jacques Gernet has estimated that the population of Hangzhou numbered well over one million by 1276. (Official Chinese census figures from the year 1270 listed some 186,330 families in residence and probably failed to count non-residents and soldiers.) It is believed that Hangzhou was the largest city in the world from 1180 to 1315 and from 1348 to 1358.[22][23]

Because of the large population and densely crowded (often multi-story) wooden buildings, Hangzhou was particularly vulnerable to fires. Major conflagrations destroyed large sections of the city in 1132, 1137, 1208, 1229, 1237, and 1275 while smaller fires occurred nearly every year. The 1237 fire alone was recorded to have destroyed 30,000 dwellings. To combat this threat, the government established an elaborate system for fighting fires, erected watchtowers, devised a system of lantern and flag signals to identify the source of the flames and direct the response, and charged more than 3,000 soldiers with the task of putting out fires.

The city of Hangzhou was besieged and captured by the advancing Mongol armies of Kublai Khan in 1276, three years before the final collapse of the empire.[24] The capital of the new Yuan Dynasty was established in the city of Dadu (Beijing).[25]

The Venetian merchant Marco Polo supposedly visited Hangzhou in the late 13th century. In his book, he records that the city was "greater than any in the world".[19] He called the city Quinsai, a name that—like Odoric of Pordenone's Cansay—derived from its Southern Song nickname Xingzai, "Temporary Residence". Although Polo exaggerated that the city was over one hundred miles in diameter and had 12,000 stone bridges, he still presented elegant prose about the country: "The number and wealth of the merchants, and the amount of goods that passed through their hands, was so enormous that no man could form a just estimate thereof." The renowned 14th-century Moroccan explorer Ibn Battuta said it was "the biggest city I have ever seen on the face of the earth."[26][27]

The city remained an important port until the middle of the Ming dynasty era, when its harbor slowly silted up. Under the Qing, it was the site of an imperial army garrison.[28]

 
An area map of Hangzhou in 1867

In 1856 and 1860, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom occupied Hangzhou and caused heavy damage to the city.


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أسرة يوان

Hangzhou was besieged and captured by the advancing Mongol armies of Kublai Khan in 1276, three years before the final collapse of the Southern Song.[24] Historian Patricia Buckley Ebrey noted that the Mongol Yuan dynasty treated the Jurchen Wanyan royal family harshly, butchering them by the hundreds as well as the Tangut emperor of Western Xia when they defeated him earlier. However Patricia also noted the Mongols were totally lenient on the Han Chinese Zhao royal family of the Southern Song explicitly unlike the Jurchens during the Jingkang incident, sparing both the Southern Song royals in the capital Hangzhou like the Emperor Gong of Song and his mother as well as sparing the civilians inside it and not sacking the city, allowing them to go about their normal business, rehiring Southern Song officials. The Mongols did not take the southern Song palace women for themselves but instead had Han Chinese artisans in Shangdu marry the palace women.[29] The capital of the new Yuan dynasty was established in the city of Dadu (Beijing), but Hangzhou remained an important commercial and administrative center for their southern territory.

وصف الأجانب

Yuan China was very open to foreign visitors, and several returned west describing Hangzhou—under the names Khinzai,[30] Campsay,[31] etc.[note 1] — as one of the foremost cities in the world. The Venetian merchant Marco Polo supposedly visited Hangzhou in the late 13th century. In his book, he records that the city was "greater than any in the world"[19] and that "the number and wealth of the merchants, and the amount of goods that passed through their hands, was so enormous that no man could form a just estimate thereof." The manuscripts of Polo's account greatly exaggerate the city's size, although it has been argued that the "hundred miles" of walls would be plausible if Chinese miles were intended instead of Italian ones[34] and that the "12,000 stone bridges" might have been a copyist error born from the city's 12 gates.[35] In the 14th century, the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta arrived; his later account concurred that al-Khansā was "the biggest city I have ever seen on the face of the earth."[36][37][38] He visited Hangzhou in 1345 and noted its charm and described how the city sat on a beautiful lake and was surrounded by gentle green hills.[39] He was particularly impressed by the large number of well-crafted and well-painted Chinese wooden ships with colored sails and silk awnings in the canals. He attended a banquet held by Qurtai, the Yuan Mongol administrator of the city, who according to Ibn Battuta, was fond of the skills of local Chinese conjurers.[40]

 
West Lake

التاريخ الحديث

الجغرافيا والمناخ

هانگ‌ژو
جدول طقس (التفسير)
يفمأمييأسأند
 
 
73
 
8
2
 
 
84
 
9
3
 
 
138
 
14
6
 
 
127
 
21
12
 
 
147
 
26
17
 
 
231
 
29
21
 
 
159
 
33
25
 
 
156
 
32
25
 
 
145
 
28
20
 
 
87
 
23
15
 
 
60
 
17
9
 
 
47
 
11
3
متوسطات درجات الحرارة القصوى والدنيا - °س
إجمالي الهطل - مم
المصدر: China Meteorological Administration
 
منظر خليج هانگ‌ژو من جسر خليج هانگ‌ژو
 
Tidal bore at the Qiantang River في هانگ‌ژو


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التقسيمات الادارية

The sub-provincial city of Hangzhou comprises 9 districts, 2 county-level cities, and 2 counties. The six central urban districts occupy 683 km2 (264 sq mi) and have 3,560,400 people. The three suburban districts occupy 4,193 km2 (1,619 sq mi) and have 3,399,300 people.

Map
التقسيم بالصينية Pinyin Population (2010) المساحة (كم²) الكثافة
المدينة نفسها
Shangcheng District 上城区 Shàngchéng Qū 344,594 18.30 18,830.27
Xiacheng District 下城区 Xiàchéng Qū 526,096 31.46 16,722.70
Jianggan District 江干区 Jiānggàn Qū 998,783 210.22 4,751.13
Gongshu District 拱墅区 Gǒngshù Qū 551,874 87.49 6,307.85
Xihu District 西湖区 Xīhú Qū 820,017 308.70 2,656.36
Binjiang District 滨江区 Bīnjiāng Qū 319,027 72.02 4,429.70
Suburban
Xiaoshan District 萧山区 Xiāoshān Qū 1,511,290 1,420.22 1,064.12
Yuhang District 余杭区 Yúháng Qū 1,170,290 1,223.56 956.46
Fuyang District 富阳区 Fùyáng Qū 717,694 1,831.20 391.93
County
Tonglu County 桐庐县 Tónglú Xiàn 406,450 1,825.00 222.71
Chun'an County 淳安县 Chún'ān Xiàn 336,843 4,427.00 76.09
County-level cities
Jiande 建德市 Jiàndé Shì 430,750 2,321.00 185.59
Lin'an 临安市 Lín'ān Shì 566,665 3,126.80 181.23

الاقتصاد

 
Qianjiang CBD in Hangzhou
 
View of the night time Hangzhou skyline from the West Lake
 
Alibaba's Binjiang Campus in Hangzhou, headquarters for Alibaba's B2B service
 
Hangzhou International Conference Center

Hangzhou's economy has rapidly developed since its opening up in 1992. It is an industrial city with many diverse sectors such as light industry, agriculture, and textiles. It is considered an important manufacturing base and logistics hub for coastal China.[42]

The 2001 GDP of Hangzhou was RMB ¥156.8 billion, which ranked second among all of the provincial capitals after Guangzhou. The city has more than tripled its GDP since then, increasing from RMB ¥156.8 billion in 2001 to RMB ¥701.1 billion in 2011 and GDP per capita increasing from US$3,025 to US$12,447.[42][43]

السياحة

 
بوابة مدينة هانگ‌ژو في 1906
 
البحيرة الغربية و پاگودا لـِي‌فنگ
 
مسكن هو شوى‌يان
 
جسر پاگودا هانگژو


  • مسجد فنگ‌هوانگ (Fenghuang Temple ، 凤凰清真寺) هو أحد أقدم مساجد الصين، والبناء الحالي عند تقاطع طريق شيهو (西湖大道) وطريق ژونگ‌شان المركزي (中山中路) يبلغ عمره 700 سنة، أي من عهد أسرة يوان.
 
البحيرة الغربية.
 
Hangzhou Sunset Over the Qiantang River


المواصلات

 
حانات ومحال في أحد شوارع هانگژو.
 
Luohan Tang (Arhat Hall) at Hupaoquan in Hangzhou، الصين.


البلدات التوأم – المدن الشقيقة

Hangzhou is twinned with:

City Country since
Queenstown   نيوزيلندا غير معروف
Sayama   اليابان 1978
Gifu   اليابان 1979
بوسطن   الولايات المتحدة 1982
Baguio   الفلبين 1982
ليدز   إنجلترا 1988
Fukui   اليابان 1989
نيس   فرنسا 1994
پاراماريبو   سورينام 1988
بوداپست   المجر 1999
Cape Town   جنوب أفريقيا 2005
درسدن   ألمانيا 2009
إندياناپوليس   الولايات المتحدة 2009
أطلنطا   الولايات المتحدة 2012
دنيپرو   أوكرانيا 2013
Tallinn   إستونيا Unknown
Weert   هولندا Unknown

Fishers, Indiana is in the exploration process of becoming sister cities with Hangzhou.

مأثورات صينية

 
A typical Chinese garden's window in Hangzhou. It is a common technique for the view to resemble a Chinese painting.
 
A typical Chinese style architecture in Hangzhou
"Be born in Suzhou, live in Hangzhou, eat in Guangzhou, die in Liuzhou." (الصينية المبسطة: 生在苏州, 活在杭州, 吃在广州, 死在柳州؛ الصينية التقليدية: 生在蘇州, 活在杭州, 吃在廣州, 死在柳州�)
The meaning here lies in the fact that Suzhou was renowned for its beautiful and highly civilized and educated citizens, Hangzhou for its scenery, Guangzhou for its food, and Liuzhou (of Guangxi) for its wooden coffins which supposedly halted the decay of the body (likely made from the chamfor tree).
"Heaven Above, Suzhou and Hangzhou below." (الصينية المبسطة: 上有天堂, 下有苏杭؛ الصينية التقليدية: 上有天堂, 下有蘇杭�)
This phrase has a similar meaning to the English phrases "heaven on Earth" or "God's country".

انظر أيضاً

ملاحظات

  1. ^ For a discussion of the many sources and variant spellings of the names, see Moule.[32] The ultimate Chinese source of these names has been variously given as Jīngshī (京師, "the Capital"); Xingzai, an abbreviated form of Xíngzàisuǒ (行在所, "the Place of Temporary Residence"), which had formerly been a byname for the Song capital from the hope that the court would eventually return north to Kaifeng; and Hangtsei, the Hangzhounese pronunciation of the town's name.[33]

الهامش

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  43. ^ 杭州市人均GDP已达到中上等国家和富裕国家临界水平-杭报在线-新闻

المصادر

العامة
  •   هذه المقالة تتضمن نصاً من The Middle kingdom: a survey of the ... Chinese empire and its inhabitants ...، بقلم Samuel Wells Williams، وهي مطبوعة من سنة 1848 وهي الآن مشاع عام في الولايات المتحدة.
  •   هذه المقالة تتضمن نصاً من The middle kingdom: a survey of the geography, government, education, social life, arts, religion, etc. of the Chinese empire and its inhabitants, Volume 2، بقلم Samuel Wells Williams, John William Orr، وهي مطبوعة من سنة 1848 وهي الآن مشاع عام في الولايات المتحدة.
  •   هذه المقالة تتضمن نصاً من The Chinese repository, Volume 13، وهي مطبوعة من سنة 1844 وهي الآن مشاع عام في الولايات المتحدة.
  •   هذه المقالة تتضمن نصاً من The Baptist missionary magazine, Volume 29، بقلم American Baptist Missionary Union. Executive Committee, Baptist General Convention. Board of Managers، وهي مطبوعة من سنة 1849 وهي الآن مشاع عام في الولايات المتحدة.
  •   هذه المقالة تتضمن نصاً من My holidays in China: An account of three houseboat tours, from Shanghai to Hangehow and back via Ningpo; from Shanghai to Le Yang via Soochow and the Tah Hu; and from Kiukiang to Wuhu; with twenty-six illustrations (from photographs)، بقلم William R. Kahler، وهي مطبوعة من سنة 1895 وهي الآن مشاع عام في الولايات المتحدة.
  •   هذه المقالة تتضمن نصاً من Reports from the consuls of the United States, Issues 124–127، بقلم United States. Bureau of Foreign Commerce، وهي مطبوعة من سنة 1891 وهي الآن مشاع عام في الولايات المتحدة.
  •   هذه المقالة تتضمن نصاً من Memoirs of the Rev. Walter M. Lowrie: missionary to China، بقلم Walter Macon Lowrie, Presbyterian church in the U.S.A. Board of foreign missions، وهي مطبوعة من سنة 1854 وهي الآن مشاع عام في الولايات المتحدة.
  •   هذه المقالة تتضمن نصاً من Darkness in the flowery land: or, Religious notions and popular superstitions in north China، بقلم Michael Simpson Culbertson، وهي مطبوعة من سنة 1857 وهي الآن مشاع عام في الولايات المتحدة.
  • Yule, Henry (2002), The Travels of Friar Odoric 
  • Economic profile for Hangzhou at HKTDC

وصلات خارجية

سبقه
كاي‌فنگ 		عاصمة الصين (بإسم لين‌آن) تبعه
دادو (الآن بكين)
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