المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندة
المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندة كان الاسم السابق للمملكة المتحدة من 1 يناير 1801 حتى 12 أبريل 1927. تأسست بدمج مملكة بريطانيا العظمى (التي دمجت نفسها مع إنگلترة واسكتلندة) ومملكة أيرلندة، حيث أصبحت أيرلندة تحكم من وستمينستر من خلال ادارة قلعة دبلن.
المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندة | |||||||||||||
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| 1801–1922¹ | |||||||||||||
 Coat of arms (1837–1922)
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النشيد:
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الدرع في اسكتلندة (1837–1922): .svg) | |||||||||||||
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| الوضع | دولة مستقلة | ||||||||||||
| العاصمة | لندن 51°30′N 0°7′W / 51.500°N 0.117°W | ||||||||||||
| أكبر مدينة | العاصمة | ||||||||||||
| اللغات المشتركة | |||||||||||||
| صفة المواطن | بريطاني | ||||||||||||
| الحكومة | ملكية دستورية برلمانية مركزية | ||||||||||||
| الملك | |||||||||||||
| جورج الثالث | |||||||||||||
• 1820–1830 | جورج الرابع | ||||||||||||
• 1830–1837 | وليام الرابع | ||||||||||||
• 1837–1901 | ڤيكتوريا | ||||||||||||
• 1901–1910 | إدوارد السابع | ||||||||||||
• 1910–1927 (الكونت كملك للملكة المتحدة وبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندة الشمالية) | جورج الخامس | ||||||||||||
| رئيس الوزراء | |||||||||||||
• 1801, 1804–1806 | وليام پيت الأصغر | ||||||||||||
• 1924–1927 (باسم الكونت) | ستانلي بالدوين | ||||||||||||
| التشريع | البرلمان | ||||||||||||
| مجلس اللوردات | |||||||||||||
| مجلس العموم | |||||||||||||
| التاريخ | |||||||||||||
| 1 يناير 1801 | |||||||||||||
• تأسست | 6 ديسمبر 1922 | ||||||||||||
| 12 أبريل 1927 | |||||||||||||
| المساحة | |||||||||||||
| 1801 | 315,093 km2 (121,658 sq mi) | ||||||||||||
| 1921 | 315,093 km2 (121,658 sq mi) | ||||||||||||
| التعداد | |||||||||||||
• 1801 | 16345646 | ||||||||||||
• 1921 | 42769196 | ||||||||||||
| العملة | جنيه استرليني | ||||||||||||
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| اليوم جزء من | |||||||||||||
1 الدولة الحرة الأيرلندية انفصلت عن المملكة المتحدة في 1922 نتيجة Anglo-Irish Treaty, but this fact was not reflected in the long-form name of United Kingdom until the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act in 1927. The current British state, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, is universally accepted to be a direct continuation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and should not be imagined to be a break from it or a new state formed after it. ² The Royal motto used in Scotland was [Nemo Me Impune Lacessit] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (Latin for "No-one provokes me with impunity"). | |||||||||||||
في أعقاب استقلال أيرلندة في 6 ديسمبر 1922، عندما أصبحت المعاهدة الأنگلو أيرلندية في حيز التنفيذ، احتفظت باسمها الرسمي حتى تغير إلى المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندة الشمالية قانون الألقاب البرلمانية والملكية لعام 1927.
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1801 إلى 1820
Union of Great Britain and Ireland
الحروب الناپليونية
During the War of the Second Coalition (1799–1801), Britain occupied most of the French and Dutch overseas possessions, the Netherlands having become a satellite state of France in 1796, but tropical diseases claimed the lives of over 40,000 troops. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized. The peace settlement was in effect only a ceasefire, and Napoleon continued to provoke the British by attempting a trade embargo on the country and by occupying the city of Hanover, capital of the Electorate, a German-speaking duchy of the Holy Roman Empire which was in a personal union with the United Kingdom. In May 1803, war was declared again. Napoleon's plans to invade Great Britain failed, chiefly due to the inferiority of his navy, and in 1805 a Royal Navy fleet led by Nelson decisively defeated the French Imperial Navy and Royal Spanish Navy at Trafalgar, which was the last significant naval action of the Napoleonic Wars.[2]
حرب 1812 ضد الولايات المتحدة
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To defeat France, Britain put heavy pressure on the United States, seizing merchant ships suspected of trading with France, and impressing sailors (conscription) born in Britain, regardless of their claimed American citizenship. British government agents armed Indigenous American tribes in Canada that were raiding American settlements on the frontier. The Americans felt humiliated and demanded war to restore their honour, despite their complete unpreparedness. The War of 1812 was a minor sideshow to the British, but the American army performed very poorly, and was unable to successfully attack Canada. In 1813, the Americans took control of Lake Erie and thereby of western Ontario, knocking most of the Indian tribes out of the war. When Napoleon surrendered for the first time in 1814, three separate forces were sent to attack the Americans in upstate New York, along the Maryland coast (burning Washington but getting repulsed at Baltimore), and up the Mississippi River to a massive defeat at the Battle of New Orleans. Each operation proved a failure with the British commanding generals killed or in disgrace. The war was a stalemate without purpose. A negotiated peace was reached at the end of 1814 that restored the prewar boundaries. British Canada celebrated its deliverance from American rule, Americans celebrated victory in a "second war of independence," and Britain celebrated its defeat of Napoleon. The treaty opened up two centuries of peace and open borders.[3]
رد الفعل بعد الحرب: 1815–1822
Ultra Tories: Peterloo Massacre and the Six Acts
The Ultra-Tories were the leaders of reaction and seemed to dominate the Tory Party, which controlled the government.[4] Every untoward event seemed to point to a conspiracy on the left which necessitated more repression to head off another terror such as happened in the French Revolution in 1793. Historians find that the violent radical element was small and weak; there were a handful of small conspiracies involving men with few followers and careless security; they were quickly suppressed.[5] Nevertheless, techniques of repression included the suspension of Habeas Corpus in 1817 (allowing the government to arrest and hold suspects without cause or trial). Sidmouth's Gagging Acts of 1817 heavily muzzled the opposition newspapers; the reformers switched to pamphlets and sold 50,000 a week.[6]
عصر الإصلاح: 1820–1837
The era of reform came in a time of peace, guaranteed in considerable part by the overwhelming power of the Royal Navy. Britain engaged in only one serious war between 1815 and 1914, the Crimean War against the Russian Empire in the 1850s. That war was strictly limited in terms of scope and impact. The major result was the realisation that military medical services needed urgent reform, as advocated by the nursing leader Florence Nightingale. British diplomats, led by Lord Palmerston, promoted British nationalism, opposed reactionary regimes on the continent, helped the Spanish colonies to free themselves and worked to shut down the international slave trade.[7]
It was a time of prosperity, population growth and better health, except in Ireland where over one million deaths were caused by the Great Famine when the potato crop failed in the 1840s. The Government did little to help the starving poor in Ireland. Along with the 1 million deaths, another 1 million would emigrate in a few short years, mostly to Britain and to the United States. The trend of emigration would continue in Ireland for decades and Ireland's population has never recovered to its pre-famine levels. The Irish language was almost wiped out. The failure of the British government to respond to the crisis in the eyes of the Irish people would lead to a growth in resentment of Britain and a rise in Irish nationalism. The Famine is remembered in Ireland to this day as oppression by the British Empire.
Industrial Revolution accelerated, with textile mills joined by iron and steel, coal mining, railroads and shipbuilding. The second British Empire, founded after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in the American Revolutionary War of the 1770s, was dramatically expanded in India, other parts of Asia, and Africa. There was little friction with other colonial powers until the 1890s. British foreign policy avoided entangling alliances.[8]
Protestant Nonconformists
In the 1790–1815 period there was an improvement in morals caused by the religious efforts by evangelicals inside the Church of England,[9] and Dissenters or Nonconformist Protestants as people:
became wiser, better, more frugal, more honest, more respectable, more virtuous, than they ever were before." Wickedness still flourished, but the good were getting better, as frivolous habits were discarded for more serious concerns. The leading moralist of the era, William Wilberforce, saw everywhere "new proofs presenting themselves of the diffusion of religion".[10]
السياسة الخارجية
Three men shaped British foreign policy from 1810 to 1860, with only a few interruptions, Viscount Castlereagh (especially 1812–1822). George Canning (especially 1807–1829) and Viscount Palmerston (especially 1830–1865). For complete list, see Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs.
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عصر الإصلاح
الإنجازات الرئيسية
العملية السياسية
Chartism
رؤساء الوزراء
Prime ministers of the period included: William Pitt the Younger, Lord Grenville, Duke of Portland, Spencer Perceval, Lord Liverpool, George Canning, Lord Goderich, Duke of Wellington, Lord Grey, Lord Melbourne, Lord Palmerston and Robert Peel.[11][12]
المصلحون
العصر الڤيكتوري
The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's rule between 1837 and 1901 which signified the height of the British Industrial Revolution and the apex of the British Empire. Scholars debate whether the Victorian period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians—actually begins with the passage of the Reform Act 1832. The era was preceded by the Regency era and succeeded by the Edwardian period. Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign saw Britain reach the zenith of its economic and political power, with the introduction of steam ships, railways, photography and the telegraph. Britain again remained mostly inactive in Continental politics.[بحاجة لمصدر]
The Queen played a small role in politics, but became the iconic symbol of the nation, the empire and proper, restrained behaviour.[13] Her success as ruler was due to the power of the self-images she successively portrayed of innocent young woman, devoted wife and mother, suffering and patient widow, and grandmotherly matriarch.[14]
السياسة الخارجية
إمبريالية التجارة الحرة
روسيا وفرنسا والدولة العثمانية
الحرب الأهلية الأمريكية
الامبراطورية تتوسع
Starting in 1867, Britain united most of its North American colonies as the Dominion of Canada, giving it self-government and responsibility for its own defence, Canada did not have an independent foreign policy until 1931. The second half of the 19th century saw a scramble for Africa among the European powers. There was talk of war with France over the Fashoda Incident of 1898.
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الزعامة
Prime ministers of the period included: Lord Melbourne, Robert Peel, Lord John Russell, Lord Derby, Lord Aberdeen, Lord Palmerston, Benjamin Disraeli, William Ewart Gladstone, Lord Salisbury and Lord Rosebery.
Disraeli and Gladstone dominated the politics of the late 19th century, Britain's golden age of parliamentary government. They long were idolised, but historians in recent decades have become much more critical, especially regarding Disraeli.[15][16]
ديزرائيلي
گلادستون
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William Ewart Gladstone was the Liberal counterpart to Disraeli, serving as prime minister four times (1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886 and 1892–1894). His financial policies, based on the notion of balanced budgets, low taxes and laissez-faire, were suited to a developing capitalist society but could not respond effectively as economic and social conditions changed. Called the "Grand Old Man" later in life, he was always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to British workers and the lower middle class. The deeply religious Gladstone brought a new moral tone to politics with his evangelical sensibility. His moralism often angered his upper-class opponents (including Queen Victoria, who strongly favoured Disraeli), and his heavy-handed control split the Liberal party. His foreign policy goal was to create a European order based on cooperation rather than conflict and mutual trust instead of rivalry and suspicion; the rule of law was to supplant the reign of force and self-interest. This Gladstonian concept of a harmonious Concert of Europe was opposed to and ultimately defeated by the Germans with a Bismarckian system of manipulated alliances and antagonisms.[17]
سالزبري
الأخلاق
مطلع القرن العشرين
Prime ministers from 1900 to 1923: Marquess of Salisbury, Arthur Balfour, Henry Campbell-Bannerman, H. H. Asquith, David Lloyd George, Bonar Law.
العصر الإدواردي: 1901–1914
الحرب العطمى
أيرلندا
Campaign for Irish Home Rule
Irish independence
قائمة الملوك
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- جورج الثالث (1801–1820) (ملك من 1760)
- جورج الرابع (1820–1830)
- وليام الرابع (1830–1837)
- ڤيكتوريا (1837–1901)
- إدوارد السابع (1901–1910)
- جورج الخامس (1910–1922) (استُخدم اللقب حتى 1927)
انظر أيضاً
ملاحظات
هوامش
- ^ "National Anthem" Royal Family website
- ^ Schom, Alan (1990). Trafalgar: Countdown to Battle 1803–1805 (in الإنجليزية). Joseph. ISBN 978-0-7181-3199-9. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
- ^ Black (2009).
- ^ Gaunt, R. A. (2003). "The fourth duke of Newcastle, the ultra-tories and the opposition to Canning's administration". History. 88 (292): 568–586. doi:10.1111/1468-229X.00280.
- ^ Evans (2008), p. 3–25.
- ^ Ziegler, Philip (1965). Addington. p. 350.
- ^ Woodward (1962).
- ^ Briggs (1959).
- ^ Bebbington, David W. (2003). Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s. ISBN 978-0-41-510464-7.
- ^ Briggs (1959), p. 175.
- ^ Cannon (2002).
- ^ Arnold-Baker, Charles (2001). The Companion to British History., provides a short scholarly biography.
- ^ Arnstein, Walter L. (2003). Queen Victoria. ISBN 0-333-63806-9.
- ^ Vallone, Lynne (2002). "Victoria". History Today. 52 (6): 46–53.
- ^ Vincent, John (October 1981). "Was Disraeli a failure?". History Today. 31 (10): 5–8.
- ^ Aldous, Richard (2007) [2006]. The Lion and the Unicorn: Gladstone vs. Disraeli.
- ^ Matthew, H.C.G. (2004). "Gladstone, William Ewart (1809–1898)". قاموس أكسفورد للسيَر الوطنية (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/10787. (Subscription or UK public library membership مطلوبة.)
وصلات خارجية
| سبقه: مملكة بريطانيا العظمى 1707–1801 مملكة أيرلندة 1541–1801 |
المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندة 1801–1922 |
تبعه: المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندة الشمالية 1922–present الدولة الحرة الأيرلندية 1922–1937 |